Alzheimer’s

Alzheimer’s Disease

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia among older adults. Dementia is a brain disorder that seriously affects thinking, memory, and the ability to carry out daily activities.

AD begins slowly and worsens over time. It first affects the parts of the brain that control memory, thought, and language. Although it may be mistaken for normal memory changes of aging, Alzheimer’s disease is not a normal part of aging.

As the disease progresses, brain changes lead to increasing difficulties with reasoning, learning, and daily functioning.

What are the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?

Symptoms vary from person to person and may change from day to day. Early symptoms often involve memory loss, especially difficulty remembering recent events.

Alzheimer’s progresses in stages:

• Early-stage (mild):

  • Getting lost in familiar places
  • Repeating questions
  • Trouble finding words
  • Misplacing items

• Middle-stage (moderate):

  • Not recognizing family members
  • Increased confusion
  • Difficulty with reading, writing, or managing finances
  • Changes in mood or personality

• Late-stage (severe):

  • Inability to communicate clearly
  • Need for help with bathing, dressing, and eating
  • Anxiety, aggression, or wandering
  • Complete dependence on caregivers

Late-onset AD (age 65+) is most common. Early-onset AD (before age 65) is rare.

Who is more likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease?

The biggest risk factor is age.

Other risk factors include:

• Family history of Alzheimer’s
• Genetic factors
• Hearing loss
• Depression
• Mild cognitive impairment (MCI)
• Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
• Cardiovascular disease

Researchers believe Alzheimer’s may result from a combination of age-related brain changes, genetics, lifestyle, and environmental factors.

How is Alzheimer’s disease diagnosed?

There is no single test for AD. Diagnosis may include:

• Medical history review
• Cognitive and memory testing
• Behavioral assessment
• Blood tests to rule out other causes
• Brain imaging (MRI or CT)
• Referral to a neurologist or geriatric specialist

What are the treatments for Alzheimer’s disease?

There is currently no cure. However:

• Certain medicines may temporarily improve symptoms or slow progression in some people
• Behavioral strategies and supportive care help manage daily challenges
• Structured routines and safety planning are important

Can Alzheimer’s disease be prevented?

There is no proven way to prevent AD. However, maintaining brain health may lower risk:

• Managing blood pressure and chronic conditions
• Staying physically active
• Eating a healthy diet
• Not smoking
• Getting quality sleep
• Staying socially and mentally active

Source: National Institute on Aging (NIA), National Institutes of Health (NIH) – Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s Caregivers

A caregiver provides support to someone who cannot fully care for themselves. Caring for someone with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) can be meaningful but also physically and emotionally demanding.

AD causes progressive memory loss and impaired judgment, eventually requiring full-time care.

Responsibilities of a caregiver may include:

• Managing medical, legal, and financial affairs
• Ensuring home safety
• Monitoring driving ability
• Encouraging physical activity
• Providing a healthy diet
• Assisting with bathing, dressing, and medications
• Housekeeping and errands
• Transporting to medical appointments
• Providing companionship and emotional support
• Making medical decisions

Caregiving stress is common. It is important for caregivers to care for their own health.

Support services include:

• Home health care
• Adult day care programs
• Respite care
• Government assistance programs
• Assisted living facilities
• Nursing homes with memory care units
• Palliative and hospice care

A geriatric care manager can help families coordinate services.

Source: National Institute on Aging (NIA), NIH – Caring for a Person with Alzheimer’s

What is dementia?

Dementia is a serious decline in mental abilities that interferes with daily life. It affects:

• Memory
• Language
• Reasoning
• Problem solving
• Visual perception
• Attention

Dementia is not a normal part of aging.

What are the types of dementia?

• Alzheimer’s disease

  Most common type. Characterized by plaques (beta-amyloid) and tangles (tau protein) in the brain.

• Lewy body dementia

  Causes dementia along with movement problems and visual hallucinations.

• Frontotemporal disorders

  Affects personality, behavior, and language.

• Vascular dementia

  Caused by reduced blood flow to the brain, often after stroke.

• Mixed dementia

  Combination of two or more types.

  Other causes include Huntington’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), and HIV-associated dementia.

Who is at risk?

• Aging (strongest risk factor)
• Smoking
• High blood pressure
• Diabetes
• Excessive alcohol use
• Family history

What are the symptoms?

• Getting lost
• Forgetting familiar names
• Difficulty completing tasks
• Personality changes
• Emotional instability
• Movement or balance issues (in some types)

What are the treatments?

There is no cure for most dementias. Treatment may include:

• Medications
• Occupational therapy
• Speech therapy
• Mental health counseling
• Music or art therapy

Healthy lifestyle habits may reduce risk.

Source: National Institute on Aging (NIA), NIH – Dementia

Lewy Body Dementia (LBD)

What is Lewy body dementia?

Lewy body dementia is one of the most common types of dementia in older adults. It involves abnormal protein deposits (alpha-synuclein) in the brain.

Types of LBD:

• Dementia with Lewy bodies: Thinking problems appear first
• Parkinson’s disease dementia: Movement problems appear first

Symptoms include:

• Cognitive decline
• Visual hallucinations
• Fluctuating alertness
• Parkinsonian movement symptoms
• REM sleep behavior disorder
• Mood changes

Diagnosis

Diagnosis requires:

• Medical and neurological exam
• Cognitive testing
• Brain imaging
• Specialist evaluation

Treatment

There is no cure. Treatment focuses on symptom management:

• Medications
• Physical, occupational, and speech therapy
• Counseling
• Support groups

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), NIH – Lewy Body Dementia

Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP)

What is progressive supranuclear palsy?

Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a rare neurodegenerative brain disorder affecting movement, balance, thinking, and eye control.

It worsens over time.

What causes PSP?

The cause is usually unknown. Rare cases involve gene mutations. PSP involves abnormal buildup of tau protein in nerve cells.

Who is at risk?

• Adults over 60
• More common in men

Symptoms include:

• Early loss of balance (often falling backward)
• Stiffness and slowed movement
• Difficulty moving the eyes (especially looking downward)
• Speech and swallowing problems
• Mood changes
• Mild dementia

Diagnosis

• Medical and neurological exams
• MRI imaging
• Exclusion of similar diseases

Treatment

No cure exists. Symptom management may include:

• Medications (limited benefit)
• Walking aids
• Prism glasses
• Speech therapy
• Feeding tube (gastrostomy) in severe cases

PSP progresses over time and increases risk of falls, choking, and pneumonia.

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), NIH – Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

Degenerative Nerve Diseases

What are degenerative nerve diseases?

Degenerative nerve diseases (also called neurodegenerative diseases) are conditions in which nerve cells in the brain or spinal cord gradually lose function and die. These diseases can affect many essential body activities, including:

• Balance
• Movement
• Speech
• Breathing
• Swallowing
• Heart function
• Thinking and memory

Many degenerative nerve diseases worsen over time.

What causes degenerative nerve diseases?

The causes vary depending on the condition. Some are genetic and inherited. Others may result from:

• Stroke
• Tumors
• Alcohol misuse
• Exposure to toxins or chemicals
• Viral infections
• Unknown causes

In many cases, the exact cause is not fully understood.

Examples of degenerative nerve diseases include:

• Alzheimer’s disease
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
• Friedreich’s ataxia
• Huntington’s disease
• Lewy body dementia
• Parkinson’s disease
• Spinal muscular atrophy

Are degenerative nerve diseases serious?

Yes. Some are life-threatening, while others progress slowly over many years. Most currently have no cure.

Treatments may help:

• Relieve symptoms
• Improve mobility
• Reduce pain
• Support breathing and nutrition
• Improve quality of life

Research continues to look for better treatments and possible cures.

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), NIH – Neurodegenerative Disorders

Disabilities

What are disabilities?

A disability is any physical or mental condition that makes it more difficult to perform major life activities or interact with the world.

Disabilities may affect:

• Vision
• Hearing
• Movement
• Thinking
• Learning
• Communication
• Mental health
• Social relationships

More than 1 in 4 adults in the United States live with a disability.

Some disabilities are visible (such as using a wheelchair). Others are invisible (such as hearing loss, chronic pain, or learning disabilities).

What causes disabilities?

Some disabilities are present at birth. Others develop later in life.

Causes present at birth:

• Genetic disorders (e.g., Duchenne muscular dystrophy)
• Chromosomal conditions (e.g., Down syndrome)
• Prenatal exposure to infections or substances

Causes later in life:

• Spinal cord injury
• Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
• Stroke
• Chronic diseases (diabetes, heart disease, COPD, arthritis)
• Cancer
• Mental health disorders
• Dementia

How can disabilities affect health?

Many people with disabilities are healthy. However, they may be at risk for secondary conditions such as:

• Chronic pain
• Pressure sores
• Depression
• Obesity
• Heart disease
• Fatigue
• Injuries

Access to appropriate health care is important.

How can people with disabilities stay healthy?

Healthy lifestyle habits are important:

• Regular physical activity
• Healthy eating
• Not smoking
• Limiting alcohol
• Taking medicines safely
• Managing chronic conditions
• Staying socially connected

What resources are available?

• Assistive devices and mobility aids
• School support plans
• Disability advocacy organizations
• Support groups
• Government benefits and employment programs

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – Disability and Health

Down Syndrome

What is Down syndrome?

Down syndrome is a genetic condition in which a person has an extra copy of chromosome 21. It affects physical development and intellectual ability.

It is also called trisomy 21.

Each person with Down syndrome has unique abilities and challenges.

What causes Down syndrome?

Down syndrome occurs when cells divide incorrectly during early fetal development, resulting in an extra chromosome 21.

It usually happens by chance and is not inherited.

One known risk factor is advanced maternal age (age 35 and older).

What are the symptoms?

Symptoms vary, but may include:

• Mild to moderate intellectual disability
• Delayed speech and development
• Flat facial features
• Upward-slanting eyes
• Short neck
• Small hands and feet
• Low muscle tone

What other health problems may occur?

Some individuals may have:

• Congenital heart defects
• Hearing loss
• Vision problems
• Sleep apnea
• Digestive issues
• Obesity
• Spine problems

Many individuals live long, healthy, fulfilling lives with proper medical care and support.

How is Down syndrome diagnosed?

During pregnancy:

• Prenatal screening tests
• Diagnostic tests (such as amniocentesis)

After birth:

• Physical exam
• Genetic testing (karyotype)

What are the treatments?

There is no cure, but early support helps maximize development:

• Speech therapy
• Occupational therapy
• Physical therapy
• Special education services
• Regular health screenings

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – Down Syndrome

Health Fraud

Health fraud scams sell products that have not been proven safe or effective. These products may:

• Contain harmful ingredients
• Interact dangerously with medications
• Be made without quality control
• Cause serious injury

Scams often target people with serious illnesses such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease, HIV, and Alzheimer’s disease.

Warning signs of fraud:

• Claims of miracle cures
• Products that treat many unrelated diseases
• Conspiracy claims (“Big Pharma doesn’t want you to know”)
• “Secret ingredients”
• Fake testimonials
• Scientific terms that don’t make sense

If it sounds too good to be true, it probably is.

Always talk with your health care provider before using new or unproven products.

Source: U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) – Health Fraud Scams

Health Risks of an Inactive Lifestyle

What is an inactive lifestyle?

An inactive or sedentary lifestyle involves prolonged sitting and very little physical activity.

Common sedentary activities include:

• Desk work
• Watching television
• Using computers or mobile devices
• Long commutes

How does inactivity affect the body?

Physical inactivity can:

• Reduce muscle strength
• Weaken bones
• Slow metabolism
• Increase inflammation
• Impair circulation
• Increase fat storage

What are the health risks?

A sedentary lifestyle increases risk for:

• Obesity
• Heart disease
• Stroke
• High blood pressure
• Type 2 diabetes
• Certain cancers
• Osteoporosis
• Depression and anxiety
• Premature death

How can I become more active?

Start slowly:

• Walk more
• Take stairs
• Stand during phone calls
• Take short breaks every hour
• Exercise at home
• Do yard work or gardening

Even small increases in physical activity improve health. It is never too late to start.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), NIH – Physical Activity and Your Health

Impaired Driving

What is impaired driving?

Impaired driving means operating a motor vehicle when your ability to drive safely is reduced. It is a major cause of traffic injuries and deaths.

Driving may be impaired by:

• Alcohol
• Legal or illegal drugs
• Prescription medications
• Sleepiness or fatigue
• Distractions (texting, phone use)
• Medical conditions that affect alertness or coordination

Alcohol-impaired driving alone accounts for a large number of traffic fatalities each year.

Why is impaired driving dangerous?

Impairment can:

• Slow reaction time
• Reduce coordination
• Blur vision
• Impair judgment
• Increase risk-taking behavior
• Cause drowsiness

Even small amounts of alcohol or certain medications can affect driving ability.

How can impaired driving be prevented?

For your safety and the safety of others:

• Do not drive after drinking alcohol
• Do not mix alcohol with medications
• Avoid driving when overly tired
• Never text or use handheld devices while driving
• Arrange a designated driver
• Use rideshare services or public transportation

If you need to make a call or send a text, pull over safely first.

Source: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), U.S. Department of Transportation

Memory

What is memory?

Memory is the brain’s ability to store, retain, and recall information. Every day, your brain processes experiences and decides what to remember.

There are different types of memory:

• Short-term memory – stores information for seconds or minutes
• Long-term memory – stores information for extended periods

Is memory loss normal?

Some mild forgetfulness can be a normal part of aging. For example:

• Forgetting names occasionally
• Misplacing keys
• Taking longer to recall information

However, frequent memory problems may signal a medical issue.

When is memory loss a concern?

More serious memory problems may be linked to:

• Alzheimer’s disease
• Dementia
• Stroke
• Depression
• Head injuries
• Brain tumors or blood clots
• Thyroid, liver, or kidney disorders
• Medication side effects

If memory problems interfere with daily life, consult a health care provider.

Source: National Institute on Aging (NIA), NIH – Memory and Aging

Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)

What is mild cognitive impairment?

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a condition in which a person has more memory or thinking problems than others of the same age, but can still manage daily activities independently.

It is not dementia, but it may increase the risk of developing dementia.

What are the symptoms?

People with MCI may:

• Lose items frequently
• Miss appointments
• Struggle to find words
• Have difficulty following conversations

What causes MCI?

MCI may be related to:

• Early Alzheimer’s disease
• Blood vessel disease affecting the brain
• Medication side effects
• Other medical conditions

Some causes may be reversible.

How is MCI diagnosed?

A health care provider may:

• Conduct memory and thinking tests
• Perform a medical evaluation
• Recommend imaging or specialist consultation

Regular follow-up (every 6–12 months) is important to monitor changes.

What are the treatments?

There is no proven medication specifically for MCI. Management focuses on:

• Monitoring symptoms
• Managing health conditions
• Staying physically and mentally active

Source: National Institute on Aging (NIA), NIH – Mild Cognitive Impairment

Neurologic Diseases

What are neurologic diseases?

Neurologic diseases affect the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The nervous system controls:

• Movement
• Speech
• Swallowing
• Breathing
• Memory
• Sensation
• Mood

When something disrupts the nervous system, many body functions can be affected.

Types of neurologic diseases

There are more than 600 neurologic disorders. Major categories include:

• Genetic disorders (e.g., Huntington’s disease)
• Developmental disorders (e.g., spina bifida)
• Degenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease)
• Vascular diseases (e.g., stroke)
• Seizure disorders (e.g., epilepsy)
• Brain and spinal cord injuries
• Brain tumors
• Infections (e.g., meningitis)

Treatment

Treatment depends on the condition and may include:

• Medications
• Surgery
• Physical or occupational therapy
• Lifestyle changes
• Long-term supportive care

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), NIH

Nursing Homes

What is a nursing home?

A nursing home is a residential facility for people who require 24-hour medical supervision or assistance with daily activities but do not need hospital care.

Residents may include:

• Older adults
• People recovering from surgery
• Individuals with chronic illnesses
• People with disabilities requiring full-time care

Types of nursing home settings

Some nursing homes operate similarly to hospitals, offering:

• Skilled nursing care
• Physical therapy
• Occupational therapy
• Speech therapy

Others focus on a more home-like environment, encouraging:

• Flexible daily routines
• Social engagement
• Personalized care

Special care units

Many facilities offer memory care units for residents with conditions such as:

• Alzheimer’s disease
• Dementia

Some nursing homes also accommodate couples.

Choosing a nursing home

When selecting a facility, families may consider:

• Quality ratings
• Staff-to-resident ratios
• Cleanliness and safety
• Specialized services
• Proximity to family

Nursing homes provide essential support for individuals who require continuous care.

Source: National Institute on Aging (NIA), NIH – Long-Term Care Facilities

Oxygen Therapy

What is oxygen?

Oxygen is a gas that your body needs to function properly. Your cells use oxygen to produce energy. Your lungs absorb oxygen from the air you breathe, and it travels through your bloodstream to your organs and tissues.

Low blood oxygen levels (hypoxemia) can cause:

• Shortness of breath
• Fatigue
• Confusion
• Headaches
• Organ damage if untreated

What is oxygen therapy?

Oxygen therapy (supplemental oxygen) provides extra oxygen to people whose blood oxygen levels are too low.

It is available only by prescription and may be given:

• In a hospital
• In another medical setting
• At home

Some people need short-term oxygen therapy. Others require long-term oxygen therapy.

Oxygen can be delivered through:

• A nasal cannula (nose tube)
• A face mask
• A tent (for infants or special cases)

Devices include:

• Oxygen tanks (liquid or compressed gas)
• Oxygen concentrators (machines that pull oxygen from the air)

Portable units allow greater mobility.

Who needs oxygen therapy?

You may need oxygen therapy if you have:

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• Pneumonia
• COVID-19
• Severe asthma
• Late-stage heart failure
• Cystic fibrosis
• Sleep apnea

What are the risks?

Oxygen therapy is generally safe, but possible side effects include:

• Dry or bloody nose
• Headaches
• Fatigue

Oxygen is highly flammable. Never smoke or use open flames while using oxygen. Tanks should be secured upright to prevent accidents.

What is hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT)?

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy involves breathing oxygen inside a pressurized chamber. This allows the lungs to absorb more oxygen than under normal air pressure.

HBOT is used to treat:

• Serious wounds
• Burns
• Infections
• Decompression sickness
• Air or gas embolism
• Carbon monoxide poisoning

The FDA has not approved HBOT for conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, autism, cancer, or Lyme disease. Always consult your provider before considering HBOT.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), NIH; U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Stem Cells

What are stem cells?

Stem cells are special cells that can develop into many different types of cells in the body. They serve as a repair system.

Stem cells differ from other cells because they:

• Can divide and renew themselves for long periods
• Are unspecialized
• Can become specialized cells (such as muscle, blood, or nerve cells)

Types of stem cells

The two main types are:

• Embryonic stem cells
• Adult stem cells

Researchers are also studying induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), which are adult cells reprogrammed to act like embryonic stem cells.

Why are stem cells important?

Stem cell research may help scientists understand how diseases develop, including:

• Parkinson’s disease
• Alzheimer’s disease
• Spinal cord injury
• Heart disease
• Diabetes
• Arthritis

Stem cells may one day be used to repair damaged tissues, but many therapies are still experimental.

Source: National Institutes of Health (NIH) – Stem Cell Information

Urinary Incontinence (UI)

What is urinary incontinence?

Urinary incontinence (UI) is the loss of bladder control. It ranges from occasional leakage to complete inability to control urination.

UI is common and treatable.

Types of urinary incontinence

• Stress incontinence – Leakage during coughing, sneezing, laughing, or lifting
• Urge incontinence – Sudden strong urge followed by leakage
• Overflow incontinence – Bladder does not empty fully
• Functional incontinence – Physical or cognitive problems prevent reaching the toilet
• Mixed incontinence – Combination of types
• Transient incontinence – Temporary cause (infection or medication)
• Bedwetting – Urine leakage during sleep

Who is at risk?

Adults at higher risk include those who:

• Are female (especially after pregnancy or menopause)
• Are older
• Have prostate problems
• Have diabetes or obesity
• Smoke

Diagnosis

Your provider may use:

• Medical history and bladder diary
• Physical exam
• Urine and blood tests
• Imaging or bladder function tests

Treatment

Treatment depends on the cause and may include:

• Lifestyle changes
• Bladder training
• Kegel exercises
• Medications
• Medical devices
• Surgery

Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), NIH

Caregiver Health

What is a caregiver?

A caregiver provides assistance to someone who cannot fully care for themselves due to illness, injury, disability, or aging.

Caregivers may:

• Help with daily activities
• Manage medications
• Coordinate medical care
• Make financial or health decisions

What is caregiver stress?

Caregiving can be rewarding, but it can also cause stress. Signs of caregiver stress include:

• Feeling overwhelmed
• Sleep problems
• Weight changes
• Irritability
• Headaches or body aches
• Increased alcohol or tobacco use

Health risks of caregiver stress

Long-term stress can increase risk of:

• Depression and anxiety
• Heart disease
• Diabetes
• Obesity
• Weakened immune function

Managing caregiver stress

Caregivers can protect their health by:

• Asking for help
• Using respite care services
• Joining support groups
• Staying physically active
• Maintaining medical checkups
• Taking regular breaks

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office on Women’s Health

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)

What is Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease?

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rare, rapidly progressive brain disorder. It leads to dementia, loss of coordination, and eventually coma and death.

Most cases occur around age 60. The disease progresses quickly, and most patients die within one year.

Types of CJD

• Sporadic CJD – No known cause (most common)
• Hereditary CJD – Caused by inherited gene mutations
• Acquired CJD – Rarely transmitted through infected tissue during medical procedures

A related disease in cattle is bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as “mad cow disease.”

Symptoms

• Memory loss
• Behavior changes
• Poor coordination
• Vision problems
• Rapid progression to severe dementia

There is currently no cure for CJD. Treatment focuses on supportive care.

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), NIH

Hydrocephalus

What is hydrocephalus?

Hydrocephalus is a condition in which too much cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) builds up in the brain. CSF normally cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord. When excess fluid accumulates, it increases pressure inside the skull and can damage brain tissue.

What causes hydrocephalus?

Hydrocephalus may be:

Congenital (present at birth)

Causes can include:

• Genetic abnormalities
• Problems in fetal brain development
• Spina bifida
• Infections during pregnancy

An unusually large head is often the main sign in infants.

Acquired (develops after birth)

It can occur at any age due to:

• Head injury
• Stroke
• Brain infection (such as meningitis)
• Brain tumors
• Bleeding in the brain

What are the symptoms?

Symptoms vary by age.

Common symptoms in older children and adults include:

• Headache
• Nausea and vomiting
• Blurred or double vision
• Balance and walking problems
• Bladder control problems
• Memory and thinking difficulties

In infants, symptoms may include rapid head growth, bulging soft spot, irritability, and poor feeding.

How is hydrocephalus treated?

Hydrocephalus is usually treated with surgery.

The most common treatment is placement of a shunt, a flexible plastic tube that diverts excess fluid to another part of the body (often the abdomen), where it can be absorbed.

Another option in some cases is endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV), a procedure that allows fluid to flow more freely inside the brain.

Additional treatments may include:

• Medications (temporary use)
• Rehabilitation therapies (physical, occupational, speech therapy)

If untreated, hydrocephalus can be life-threatening. With treatment, many people live active lives.

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), NIH

Parkinson’s Disease (PD)

What is Parkinson’s disease?

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive movement disorder. It occurs when nerve cells in the brain do not produce enough dopamine, a chemical that helps control movement.

Most cases are not inherited, though genetics may play a role in some people. Environmental factors, such as toxin exposure, may also contribute.

What are the symptoms?

Symptoms usually begin gradually, often on one side of the body.

Common motor symptoms include:

• Tremor (shaking), especially at rest
• Muscle stiffness (rigidity)
• Slowness of movement (bradykinesia)
• Poor balance and coordination

As the disease progresses, people may experience:

• Difficulty walking
• Soft or slurred speech
• Trouble swallowing or chewing
• Depression
• Sleep disturbances
• Cognitive changes

Who is at risk?

PD usually begins around age 60, but it can occur earlier. It is more common in men than women.

How is Parkinson’s disease diagnosed?

There is no single test for PD. Diagnosis is based on:

• Medical history
• Neurological examination
• Response to certain medications

Imaging tests may help rule out other conditions.

What are the treatments?

There is currently no cure for PD, but treatments can help manage symptoms.

Medications

• Levodopa (converted into dopamine in the brain)
• Dopamine agonists
• Other medicines to improve movement and control symptoms

Surgical options

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) may help people with severe symptoms that do not respond well to medication. In DBS, electrodes are implanted in specific areas of the brain to regulate abnormal signals.

Supportive therapies

• Physical therapy
• Occupational therapy
• Speech therapy

With treatment, many people with PD live for many years after diagnosis, though symptoms gradually worsen.

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), NIH